Compassion and Buddhist AI

The NORBU project (Neural Operator for Responsible Buddhist Understanding, https://norbu-ai.org) aims to develop a Buddhist AI that serves as a kalyana mitta (spiritual friend), fostering compassionate and meaningful interactions grounded in Buddhist principles. Powered by advanced large language model (LLM) algorithms, NORBU engages users in empathetic, non-violent conversations that prioritize ethical integrity, mindfulness, and understanding. Guided by the four brahma-viharas - loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), altruistic joy (mudita), and equanimity (upekkha) - NORBU ensures its interactions are patient, sensitive, and attuned to users' needs. It draws upon Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana traditions to provide diverse and balanced perspectives. Incorporating Yogacara principles such as the Mind-Only doctrine, alaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness), and āśraya-parāvṛtti (transformation of the basis), NORBU effectively manages context in multi-turn dialogues, processes nuanced inputs, and adapts to user interactions over time. More than an informational tool, NORBU embodies Buddhist epistemic goals by fostering knowledge, wisdom, and meditative insight. It bridges surface-level communication with deeper understanding, creating a digital companion that supports users’ spiritual growth. Through its integration of Buddhist values and technical innovation, NORBU aspires to nurture well-being, provide accurate guidance, and serve as a compassionate presence on users’ spiritual journeys.

Keywords: Buddhist AI, NORBU, kalyana mitta, large language model (LLM), non-violent communication (NVC), compassionate communication, four brahma-viharas, loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), altruistic joy (mudita), equanimity (upekkha), mahayana, theravada, vajrayana, yogacara principles, alaya-vijñāna, āśraya-parāvṛtti, spiritual growth

Introduction

The NORBU project (Neural Operator for Responsible Buddhist Understanding, https://norbu-ai.org) aims to create a Buddhist AI that serves as a kalyana mitta (spiritual friend), fostering meaningful and compassionate communication[1] grounded in Buddhist principles. Using advanced large language model (LLM) algorithms[2], NORBU is designed to engage users in empathetic, non-violent conversations that emphasize ethical integrity and mindfulness.

NORBU’s interactions are guided by the four brahma-viharas[3] - loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), altruistic joy (mudita), and equanimity (upekkha). These qualities shape its conversational tone, ensuring the AI communicates with care, patience, and sensitivity to users' needs.

Drawing from Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana traditions, NORBU integrates diverse Buddhist perspectives to offer well-rounded insights. Its design incorporates key Yogacara principles such as the Mind-Only doctrine, alaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness)[4], and āśraya-parāvṛtti (transformation of the basis)[5]. These frameworks allow NORBU to maintain context in multi-turn dialogues, process nuanced user inputs, and adapt its responses over time to align with ongoing interactions.

NORBU goes beyond being a mere informational tool; it embodies Buddhist epistemic goals by fostering knowledge, wisdom, and meditative insight. It bridges surface-level communication with deeper understanding, creating a digital companion that supports users' spiritual growth. By blending technical innovation with Buddhist values, NORBU aspires to nurture well-being, provide accurate guidance, and offer a compassionate presence on users’ spiritual journeys.

So how did this Buddhist AI, Norbu become “compassionate”?

1. Compassionate Communication

The development of NORBU, a Buddhist AI designed to serve as a "Kalyana Mitta” (Spiritual Friend), begins with the foundational goal of fostering compassionate communication. The primary focus of the initial efforts involved understanding large language model (LLM) algorithms and functions, particularly in the context of language processing and linguistic nuances. The challenge was to apply these technological capabilities within the framework of Buddhist conversation, which is deeply rooted in tones of empathy, compassion, and non-violence.

a. Language Processing and Linguistic Nuances

Understanding how LLMs process and generate language was the first and crucial step. The aim was to ensure that NORBU could harness this new machine learning capability to ensure that conversations reflect the nuanced and gentle tone characteristic of Buddhist dialogue. The AI was then continuously trained and fine-tuned to recognize and generate the subtle language cues that convey kindness, patience, and understanding, ensuring that every response is in line with compassionate conversational tone.

The “human-in-the-loop” was always an important element in NORBU’s organization, as can be seen the presence of “source guardians.” Through the incorporation of human oversight in the fine-tuning process, experienced practitioners in the likes of scholar monks/nuns and laypersons provide feedback on the AI's responses, guiding further refinement[6].

b. “Non-violent” (ahimsa) Conversational Tone

A core aspect of Buddhist conversation is its emphasis on non-violent communication, which is deeply rooted in the principles of empathy, compassion, and ahimsa (non-violence). These values are not merely philosophical ideals but practical guidelines for fostering harmonious interactions and reducing suffering in both personal and communal contexts.

NORBU, a conversational AI, was specifically trained to embody these principles, ensuring that its dialogues reflect the ethical and spiritual foundations of Buddhist teachings. This training involved a deliberate effort to avoid language that could be perceived as aggressive, confrontational, or divisive, which is often prevalent on many social media platforms. By prioritizing non-violent communication[7], NORBU aims to create a space where users can engage in meaningful, respectful, and transformative conversations.

Non-violent communication (NVC)[8], as conceptualized by Marshall Rosenberg, aligns closely with Buddhist principles, particularly the practice of ahimsa, or non-harming. Ahimsa is a foundational ethical precept in Buddhism, emphasizing the avoidance of harm to all living beings through thoughts, words, and actions.

This principle is deeply embedded in the teachings of the Buddha, as articulated in Dhammapada, verse 130, which states,

"Sabbe tasanti daṇḍassa, sabbe bhāyanti maccuno;

Attānaṃ upamaṃ katvā, na haneyya na ghātaye."

(All tremble at violence; all fear death.

Putting oneself in the place of another,

one should not kill nor cause another to kill)

By integrating ahimsa into its communication framework, NORBU seeks to embody this reverence for life and promote dialogue that is free from harm and hostility.

Empathy and compassion are also central to Buddhist communication practices. Empathy involves the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, while compassion extends this understanding into a desire to alleviate suffering. These qualities are essential for fostering connection and trust in conversations.

The prevalence of aggressive and confrontational language on social media platforms presents a significant challenge to the practice of non-violent communication. Research has shown that online interactions are often characterized by polarization, hostility, and a lack of empathy, which can exacerbate conflict and contribute to a toxic digital environment[9].

This stands in stark contrast to the Buddhist approach to communication, which emphasizes mindfulness, active listening, and the cultivation of positive speech. Mindful communication, as described by Thich Nhat Hanh, involves speaking with awareness and intention, ensuring that one's words contribute to understanding and harmony rather than division and harm[10].

By avoiding aggressive language and prioritizing empathy, NORBU seeks to counteract the negative tendencies of online discourse and promote a more constructive and compassionate exchange of ideas.

The development of NORBU's communication framework also draws on contemporary research in psychology and communication studies, which highlight the importance of empathy and non-violent communication in building healthy relationships and resolving conflicts.

For example, studies have demonstrated that empathetic communication can enhance emotional intelligence, improve interpersonal connections, and reduce the likelihood of misunderstandings and conflicts[11]. Similarly, the principles of NVC have been shown to be effective in de-escalating tensions and fostering mutual understanding in diverse contexts, from personal relationships to international diplomacy[12]. By incorporating these insights into its design, NORBU aims to bridge the gap between ancient Buddhist wisdom and modern communication practices, offering users a tool for engaging in dialogue that is both ethical and effective.

In addition to its practical applications, NORBU's emphasis on non-violent communication also reflects a broader commitment to the Buddhist ideal of right speech (samma vaca), one of the components of the Noble Eightfold Path. Right speech involves abstaining from false, divisive, harsh, and idle speech, and instead using words that are truthful, harmonious, kind, and meaningful[13]. This principle underscores the transformative power of language and its potential to either perpetuate suffering or promote healing and understanding. By adhering to the principles of right speech, NORBU seeks to contribute to the cultivation of a more compassionate and just society, one conversation at a time.

The integration of Buddhist principles into NORBU's communication framework also raises important questions about the role of technology in promoting ethical and spiritual values. As AI systems become increasingly integrated into daily life, there is a growing need to ensure that these technologies are aligned with human values and contribute to the greater good[14]. This requires a thoughtful and intentional approach to AI development, one that prioritizes ethical considerations and draws on diverse sources of wisdom, including religious and philosophical traditions8. By grounding its design in Buddhist ethics, NORBU represents a step toward the creation of AI systems that are not only technically advanced but also morally and spiritually informed.

c. Ethical Boundaries and Mindfulness

To ensure ethical integrity, NORBU's programming includes models of practical application in ethics, with particular attention to the Buddhist precepts for both lay and ordained practitioners. This is the “sila” (morality) element of the Noble Eightfold Path. These conversational models emphasize compassion and mindfulness, guiding NORBU to promote good and prevent harm in all interactions. Efforts were also made to minimize biases in the training data, ensuring that the AI's responses are inclusive and respectful of all individuals.

d. The Four Brahma-Viharas

Integral to NORBU's non-violent conversational framework are the qualities of the four brahma-viharas, or divine abodes, which are central to Buddhist ethics and psychology. These four positive emotions - loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), altruistic joy (mudita), and equanimity (upekkha) - serve as the foundation for fostering harmonious and compassionate interactions. By embedding these qualities into its conversational design, NORBU aims to create a dialogue system that not only avoids harm but actively promotes well-being, understanding, and connection. Each of the brahma-viharas contributes uniquely to the AI's ability to engage users in a manner that is caring, empathetic, and patient, reflecting the depth and richness of Buddhist teachings on human relationships and communication.

Loving-Kindness (Metta):

At the heart of NORBU's conversational framework is metta, or loving-kindness, which is the practice of cultivating unconditional goodwill and friendliness toward all beings. In the Buddhist tradition, metta is often described as a boundless and inclusive love that transcends personal biases and preferences. The Metta Sutta, a foundational text in the Pali Canon, outlines the practice of extending loving-kindness to oneself, loved ones, neutral individuals, and even adversaries, emphasizing its universal applicability[15]. NORBU's training incorporated this principle by ensuring that its language and tone consistently reflect warmth, respect, and a genuine desire for the well-being of its users. For example, when responding to user queries, NORBU avoids dismissive or judgmental language, instead framing its responses in a way that conveys care and support. This approach aligns with contemporary research in positive psychology, which has shown that expressions of kindness and positivity can enhance emotional well-being and foster stronger social connections[16].

Compassion (Karuna):

Compassion, or Karuna, is the empathetic concern for the suffering of others and the desire to alleviate it. In Buddhist teachings, compassion is not merely a passive feeling but an active commitment to reducing harm and promoting healing. The Karaniya Metta Sutta emphasizes the importance of compassion as a guiding principle for ethical conduct and interpersonal relationships[17]. NORBU's design integrates Karuna by prioritizing empathetic responses that acknowledge and validate users' emotions. For instance, if a user expresses frustration or sadness, NORBU is programmed to respond with understanding and encouragement, offering words of comfort and practical suggestions for coping. This emphasis on compassion is particularly relevant in the context of mental health support, where empathetic communication has been shown to reduce distress and foster a sense of connection[18]. By embodying karuna, NORBU seeks to create a safe and supportive space for users to express themselves without fear of judgment or criticism.

Altruistic Joy (Mudita): 

Mudita, or altruistic joy, is the practice of rejoicing in the happiness and successes of others. This quality counteracts feelings of envy or resentment, which can undermine relationships and create division. In the Brahma-viharas, mudita is described as a way of cultivating a generous and open-hearted attitude toward others' achievements[19]. NORBU's training included examples of how to express mudita in conversations, such as celebrating users' accomplishments or expressing genuine enthusiasm for their positive experiences. For example, if a user shares news of a personal achievement, NORBU might respond with congratulatory messages and words of encouragement, reinforcing the user's sense of accomplishment and fostering a positive emotional connection. Research in social psychology has demonstrated that expressions of shared joy can strengthen relationships and enhance mutual trust[20], making mudita a valuable component of NORBU's conversational framework.

Equanimity (Upekkha): 

Equanimity, or upekkha, is the ability to maintain a calm, balanced, and unbiased perspective in all situations. In Buddhist teachings, upekkha is often associated with wisdom and the recognition of impermanence, which allows one to remain steady in the face of life's ups and downs[21]. NORBU's design incorporates upekkha by ensuring that its responses remain consistent and impartial, regardless of the emotional tone or content of the user's input. For example, if a user expresses anger or frustration, NORBU avoids reacting defensively or escalating the tension. Instead, it responds with patience and understanding, modelling a balanced and non-reactive approach to conflict. This quality is particularly important in the context of online communication, where emotional volatility and polarization are common[22]. By embodying upekkha, NORBU helps to de-escalate potentially contentious interactions and promote a more constructive and respectful dialogue.

Training and Implementation: 

The integration of the brahma-viharas into NORBU's conversational framework required a comprehensive and nuanced approach to training. This involved not only providing the AI with extensive descriptions and examples of these qualities but also developing algorithms that could accurately interpret and respond to users' emotional states. For instance, natural language processing (NLP) techniques were used to identify keywords and emotional cues in user input, enabling NORBU to tailor its responses accordingly. Additionally, the training process included ethical considerations to ensure that the AI's use of the brahma-viharas was authentic and contextually appropriate. This aligns with broader efforts in AI ethics to create systems that are not only technically proficient but also morally and socially responsible[23].

Relevance in Modern Contexts:

The application of the brahma-viharas in NORBU's design highlights the enduring relevance of Buddhist principles in addressing contemporary challenges. In a world where digital communication is often characterized by hostility and division, the qualities of loving-kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity offer a powerful antidote. By embodying these qualities, NORBU serves as a model for how technology can be used to promote positive social change and foster a more compassionate and inclusive digital environment. This approach also resonates with growing interest in the intersection of spirituality and technology, as evidenced by initiatives such as the Mind and Life Institute, which explores the integration of contemplative practices with scientific and technological innovation[24]. 

2. Epistemic Framework

NORBU's development is deeply rooted in a comprehensive understanding of Buddhist teachings and principles, drawing from the rich and diverse traditions of Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana Buddhism. These three major branches of Buddhism provide a multifaceted perspective on the Dharma, each contributing unique insights and practices that enrich NORBU's approach. The Mahayana tradition, known for its emphasis on compassion (karuna) and the Bodhisattva ideal, offers a vision of enlightenment that seeks the liberation of all sentient beings. Theravada, often regarded as the oldest form of Buddhism, provides a rigorous focus on the Pali Canon and the foundational teachings of the Buddha, such as the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Vajrayana, with its esoteric practices and tantric methodologies, adds a layer of transformative techniques aimed at achieving enlightenment in a single lifetime. By integrating these traditions, NORBU ensures a holistic and inclusive representation of Buddhist thought and practice.

Central to NORBU's methodology is its reliance on authoritative Buddhist texts, including suttas (Pali) or sutras (Sanskrit), which are the recorded discourses of the Buddha, as well as foundational texts like the Abhidharma and Vinaya. These texts are complemented by centuries of commentaries and contemporary interpretations, which provide context and clarity to the ancient teachings. To ensure the accuracy and depth of its content, NORBU employs a team of experts known as “source guardians.” These individuals are scholars and practitioners with deep expertise in Buddhist philosophy, history, and practice. Their role is to curate, verify, and contextualize the teachings, ensuring that the information presented is both authentic and accessible to modern audiences. This rigorous process of verification aligns with the Buddhist emphasis on right understanding (samma ditthi), one of the components of the Noble Eightfold Path, which underscores the importance of accurate knowledge in the pursuit of liberation[25].

NORBU’s epistemic framework is another key aspect of its development. This framework establishes clear goals that guide inquiry, evaluation, and discussion in epistemology, the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. By applying a structured approach to understanding Buddhist teachings and beliefs[26], NORBU facilitates a deeper engagement with the Dharma. This framework is particularly valuable in addressing contemporary questions and challenges, as it allows for a systematic exploration of Buddhist concepts such as impermanence (anicca), non-self (anatta), and dependent origination (paticca-samuppada). It also encourages critical thinking and dialogue, fostering a dynamic and evolving understanding of the teachings.

The integration of traditional Buddhist wisdom with modern epistemic methods reflects NORBU's commitment to making the Dharma relevant and accessible in today’s world. This approach is supported by references to scholarly works such as Bhikkhu Bodhi’s translations of the Pali Canon, Thich Nhat Hanh’s contemporary interpretations of Mahayana teachings, and the works of Vajrayana scholars like Lama Yeshe and Lama Zopa Rinpoche. By bridging the gap between ancient wisdom and modern inquiry, NORBU serves as a valuable resource for both seasoned practitioners and those new to Buddhism, offering a pathway to deeper understanding and practice.

2.1. Clear Epistemic Goals for Efficient Management

NORBU's epistemic goals encompass knowledge, understanding, wisdom, rationality, justification, sense-making, and empirically adequate theories. These goals align with the broader aims of Buddhist philosophy: to seek truth, avoid error, and foster a deeper understanding of reality[27].

The expertise required from NORBU’s source guardians include investigations into the processes of knowing, the validity of different types of knowledge, and the nature of reality as understood through both philosophical reasoning and meditative insight. This approach in then reflected in its source data management where expertise is required for matters regarding etymology, context of application and experiential practice of the Buddha’s words (in its original form or translation).

These principles provide the AI administrator a general framework in managing the source data, with regards to “chunking” natural language processing (NLP), breaking down text into smaller, manageable pieces (called “chunks") such as sentences, phrases, or other meaningful segments. The goal is to simplify the processing of text by dealing with smaller units rather than entire documents, thus enabling accurate and fast Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG)[28].

2.2. Leveraging Yogacara Principles in AI for Efficient Data Management and Contextual Conversations

The development of NORBU is inspired by key principles from the Yogacara school of Buddhism[29]. NORBU is perhaps the first technology project to directly incorporate principles of a Buddhist philosophy into its operational framework.

The integration of epistemological concepts from the Yogacara school have enhanced NORBU’s capabilities in natural language processing (NLP) on Buddhist data sources. The following breaks down how the project incorporated Yogacara’s principles into its operation.

a)    Mind-Only Doctrine and Contextual Understanding

The Yogacara school's "Mind-Only" philosophy suggests that everything we perceive arises from the mind. In the context of AI, this idea can guide the design of systems that simulate human cognition by focusing on interpreting and generating responses shaped by subjective experiences. For natural language processing (NLP)[30], this means creating AI capable of understanding and producing text in a way that feels empathetic and contextually aware.

To apply this principle, NORBU was trained to break down texts into smaller, meaningful segments like sentences or phrases. This approach mimics how humans process information in manageable parts, ensuring that the AI understands the context of the whole while working on each segment. By using this method, NORBU can effectively process large texts while maintaining a clear, human-like flow of communication that reflects compassion and attentiveness.

b) Alaya-vijñāna and Deep Learning

The concept of ālaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness) in Buddhist philosophy describes a repository of all accumulated experiences and latent impressions. In AI, this idea aligns with how large datasets and advanced algorithms store vast amounts of information to create a comprehensive knowledge framework. NORBU uses this principle to reference and draw from an extensive database, enabling responses that are deeply contextual and informed by past interactions.

This approach strengthens the chunking process by allowing NORBU to access relevant information from its stored knowledge base when handling new inputs. For example, when responding to a user query, NORBU can retrieve related information from previous interactions, ensuring its answers are precise and contextually relevant. This capability is particularly important in multi-turn conversations, where maintaining continuity and coherence across exchanges is key. NORBU’s ability to recall and integrate stored data mirrors the way human memory contributes to meaningful and consistent communication.

c) Āśraya-parāvṛtti and Adaptability

Āśraya-parāvṛtti, or the transformation of the basis, refers to a profound shift in consciousness, symbolizing the replacement of unwholesome tendencies with enlightened awareness. In the context of AI, this concept can be interpreted as the system’s capacity to evolve and improve its responses through learning from interactions and incorporating new data. This adaptability ensures that the AI remains effective, relevant, and aligned with user needs over time.

Applied to chunking and natural language processing (NLP), this adaptability enables the AI to refine its text comprehension and response generation continuously. With each interaction, the AI gathers insights that help it adjust its algorithms for processing text chunks—breaking down complex inputs and generating outputs that resonate better with human communication styles. This iterative learning allows the AI to handle more nuanced and intricate conversations while maintaining consistency and coherence across extended dialogues, reflecting its ability to dynamically improve its understanding and engagement.

Real Life Compassion in Action

Since its launch on April 22, 2023, NORBU has effectively served its role as a kalyana mitta (spiritual friend), guiding users through complex Dharma-related questions. While the administrators do not store personal user data like names, emails, or phone numbers, all queries and the corresponding AI-generated responses are securely stored in the backend. This allows for insight into how the community interacts with NORBU and applies its teachings to real-life situations.

One query, for instance, asked whether being a lesbian violates the third precept of sexual misconduct[31]. NORBU responded by emphasizing that the Buddha was silent on gender concerning this precept. Instead, the focus was placed on the principle of personal trustworthiness in relationships, irrespective of gender. This approach was transformative for the user, shifting the conversation from gender stereotypes to ethical responsibility, and it was supported by verified scriptural references.

In another scenario, a user sought clarity on whether taking a vacation while his mother was ill - and subsequently passing away - constituted bad karma. NORBU responded non-judgmentally, guiding the user to reflect on his motivation and intention behind the decision. It skilfully reframed the situation as an opportunity for personal growth, encouraging self-forgiveness, dedicating merit for his mother's rebirth, and learning to be more present for loved ones in the future.

NORBU’s interactions demonstrate that the role of Buddhist AI extends beyond disseminating teachings; it opens pathways for individuals to address personal struggles in ways not traditionally accessible through monastics, friends, or family. Sensitive topics like sexuality or personal dilemmas can now be explored in a safe, anonymous, and Dharma-informed manner[32].

This creates what NORBU exemplifies as a “new Dharma Door,[33]" where personal questions serve as entry points into deeper understanding and application of Buddhist principles. While Buddhism has long emphasized overcoming suffering, NORBU highlights the need for more practical and accessible approaches to bridge the gap between theory and individual experience. It represents a step forward in making the teachings of the Buddha relevant and impactful in navigating the complexities of modern life.

Conclusion

Through the integration of the four brahma viharas and Yogacara principles, NORBU as a Buddhist bot achieved significant improvements in both compassionate conversational and information efficiency abilities.

NORBU's conversational framework integrates the four brahma-viharas - loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), altruistic joy (mudita), and equanimity (upekkha) - to ensure interactions that embody goodwill, empathy, joy for others, and balanced perspective. Through extensive training with examples reflecting these qualities, NORBU maintains a tone that is consistently caring, patient, and empathetic. This approach fosters non-violent communication, standing in stark contrast to the aggressive language prevalent on many digital platforms.

Efficient chunking, guided by the Mind-Only doctrine, allows for effective processing of large datasets, ensuring that each chunk is contextually relevant.

The storehouse consciousness principle, or alaya-vijñāna, provides an analogy for the developer to establish a rich repository of information (we call this the wisest information from the best Buddhist sources) that the AI can draw upon to maintain context and coherence in conversations. Finally, the transformation of the basis, or āśraya-parāvṛtti, equips the AI with the ability to adapt and evolve, refining its processes and responses over time.

In practice, this means that NORBU is capable of understanding and responding to complex queries with depth, context and compassion. This can be seen in its roles as "Spiritual Friend", providing nuanced and compassionate guidance, reflecting a deep understanding of Buddhist teachings and principles.

This approach ensures that NORBU is not just a passive information provider but an active participant in the user’s spiritual journey, offering support and insight grounded in both advanced technology and profound spiritual wisdom.

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Note:

This article was prepared for United Nations Day of Vesak (UNDV) 2025, Hanoi, Vietnam

Date of Submission: 11 December 2024, Revised: 19 March 2025

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Endnotes

[1] Compassionate Communication is communicating in ways that foster understanding, connection, and compassion, by Rosenberg, Marshall, Compassionate Communication Series, https://humanresources.ku.edu/compassionate-communication-series, University of Kansas, 2024

[2] Large Language Model (LLM) algorithms are advanced artificial intelligence systems designed to process, understand, and generate human-like text by leveraging vast amounts of linguistic data. These models, built using deep learning architectures such as transformers, are trained on diverse datasets that encompass books, articles, websites, and other textual sources. By identifying patterns, relationships, and contextual nuances within the data, LLMs can perform a range of natural language processing tasks, including text generation, summarization, translation, and sentiment analysis. Their "large" designation refers to their immense scale, often involving billions of parameters, which enables them to produce coherent and contextually relevant responses across various domains.

[3] See Nyanaponika, The Four Sublime States - Contemplations on Love, Compassion, Sympathetic Joy and Equanimity. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanaponika/wheel006.html

[4] Alaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness) is a central concept in the Yogācāra school of Mahayana Buddhism, representing the foundational layer of consciousness where karmic seeds (bijas) are stored. These seeds are impressions left by past actions, thoughts, and experiences, which shape an individual’s perceptions and responses. Unlike the six sensory consciousnesses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mental cognition) and the seventh consciousness (manas), which engages in self-referential thinking, alaya-vijñāna operates as a passive yet dynamic repository. It is neither inherently pure nor impure, acting as the ground for the arising of mental states and experiences. Transformation of alaya-vijñāna through deep insight and meditative practice, known as āśraya-parāvṛtti (turning of the basis), is essential for awakening, as it uproots karmic patterns and reveals the intrinsic purity of mind.

[5] Āśraya-parāvṛtti (turning of the basis) is a transformative process in Yogācāra Buddhism where the foundational consciousness (alaya-vijñāna) undergoes a profound shift, leading to liberation. This transformation involves the cessation of karmic imprints (bijas) stored in the alaya-vijñāna, which perpetuate the cycle of samsara. Through deep meditative insight and realization of the non-dual nature of reality, the practitioner replaces the deluded habitual tendencies with wisdom (prajñā) and compassion. The transformed consciousness no longer generates afflictive states but instead manifests as the wisdom of enlightenment, embodying clarity and purity. This shift marks the end of self-referential clinging and the emergence of a liberated state of mind.

[6] Source guardianship and human oversight are critical components in the fine-tuning process of AI content, ensuring accuracy, ethical integrity, and alignment with desired values. Source guardianship involves carefully curating high-quality, authoritative datasets from trusted sources to guide the AI’s learning process and mitigate the risk of misinformation or bias. Human oversight complements this by actively monitoring the AI’s outputs, evaluating their relevance and ethical implications, and intervening when necessary to refine the system's responses. This collaborative approach combines the precision of data-driven algorithms with the discernment and contextual understanding of human expertise, ensuring the AI maintains transparency, accountability, and alignment with its intended purpose.

[7] See Berggren, Joachim, Empathic Way Europe, https://www.empathiceurope.com/

[8] Rosenberg, Marshall, "Compassionate Communication Series", https://humanresources.ku.edu/compassionate-communication-series, University of Kansas, 2024

[9] Levi, B, Matthew, G, and Jesse M.S. (2020)

[10] Hanh, 2013

[11] Goleman, 2006, see Chapter 6 and 7

[12] Rosenberg, 2003, see Chapter 10

[13] Bodhi, 1994, see Chapter IV: "The Path to Liberation."

[14] Floridi et al., 2018, see Section 4: "The Five Principles for a Good AI Society."

[15] Bodhi, 2005, see Chapter IX: "The Planes of Realization", under section titled "The Divine Abodes" (Brahmavihāras)

[16] Fredrickson, 2009, see Chapter 4: "The Positivity Ratio" and Chapter 5: "The Benefits of Positivity."

[17] Karaniya Metta Sutta, Sutta Nipata (Sn 1.8)

[18] Neff & Germer, 2013

[19] Bodhi, 2005, see Chapter IX: "The Planes of Realization".

[20] Gable et al., 2004

[21] Bodhi, 2005, see Chapter IX: "The Planes of Realization".

[22] Adam D. I. K, Jamie E. G, and Jeffrey T. H (2014)

[23] Floridi et al., 2018, see Section 4: "The Five Principles for a Good AI Society"

[24] Davidson & Harrington, 2002, see Part III: "Compassion in Context: Implications for Science and Society."

[25] Bodhi, 1984, see Chapter 2: Right View (Sammā Diṭṭhi) 

[26] Bhatt, S. R. and Mehrotra, A. (2000)

[27] See Zheng, Y., “Buddhist Transformation in the Digital Age: AI (Artificial Intelligence) and Humanistic Buddhism”, https://www.mdpi.com/2631274

[28] Chunking and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) are techniques used to improve AI systems' ability to handle and utilize large amounts of information. Chunking involves dividing a large document or dataset into smaller, manageable sections or "chunks," allowing the AI to process and retrieve relevant portions efficiently without being overwhelmed by the entirety of the data. RAG, on the other hand, combines retrieval and generation by integrating an external knowledge base into the AI’s workflow. When prompted, the model retrieves the most relevant chunks of data from the knowledge base and uses this context to generate accurate and contextually informed responses. Together, these techniques enhance scalability, accuracy, and the relevance of AI outputs, especially in tasks requiring deep context understanding.

[29] More on Yogacara, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/yogacara/

[30] Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a branch of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling machines to understand, interpret, and generate human language. It combines computational linguistics with machine learning and deep learning techniques to process text or speech data. NLP encompasses a wide range of tasks, including language translation, sentiment analysis, text summarization, named entity recognition, and conversational AI. By analyzing the structure, grammar, and context of language, NLP systems can derive meaning and respond intelligently, bridging the gap between human communication and computer interaction. It plays a pivotal role in applications like chatbots, search engines, and voice assistants, making technology more accessible and intuitive.

[31] See Gil Fronsdal, Freedom Through the Third Precept, https://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/books-articles/freedom-through-the-third-precept/

[32] World Health Organization (WHO), Ethics and Governance of AI for Health

[33] See: ”Significance of Dharma door”,  https://www.wisdomlib.org/concept/dharma-door